Commerce Chapters Summary
Chapter 1 Nature and Purpose of Business
I. Classification of Human Activities: Economic and Non-Economic
Human Activities:
Economic Activities: Activities performed by individuals or organizations to earn income, livelihood, profit, or wealth. They include business, profession, and employment.
Non-Economic Activities: Activities pursued for personal satisfaction, happiness, or social service without any monetary gain, such as hobbies, volunteer work, and leisure activities.
Types of Economic Activities:
Business: Involves trading goods or services with the objective of earning a profit.
Profession: Involves offering specialized skills or knowledge in return for fees; it requires formal qualifications and training.
Employment: Involves working for someone else (employer) and earning wages or salary.
II. Definition and Concept of Business; Classification of Business Activities
Definition of Business:
Business refers to an organized effort by individuals or entities to produce and sell goods and services for profit.
Characteristics of Business:
Involves exchange of goods and services.
Aimed at earning profits.
Requires regularity in transactions.
Involves risk and uncertainty.
Classification of Business Activities:
(a) Industry:
Based on Activity:
Primary Industry: Involves extraction of natural resources (e.g., agriculture, mining).
Secondary Industry: Involves transforming raw materials into finished products (e.g., manufacturing).
Based on Size:
Micro, Small, Medium, and Large Industries: Classified based on investment, scale of operations, and output.
Role of Small Businesses in India: Crucial for economic development, employment generation, and regional balance.
(b) Commerce:
Nature and Functions: Commerce deals with the distribution aspect of the business. It involves buying and selling of goods, and services, and includes all activities that facilitate these exchanges.
Importance: Essential for the smooth flow of goods and services from producers to consumers.
Branches of Commerce:
Trade: The buying and selling of goods and services.
Aids to Trade: Activities that support trade, such as banking, insurance, transportation, warehousing, and advertising.
Relationship Between Commerce, Trade, and Industry: Industry produces goods, trade helps in their distribution, and commerce encompasses both trade and the aids to trade.
III. Business Objectives
Types of Business Objectives:
Economic Objectives: Profit maximization, growth, efficiency.
Social Objectives: Contributing to the well-being of society, ethical practices.
Human Objectives: Employee welfare and development, customer satisfaction.
National Objectives: Contributing to the national economy, adhering to government policies and regulations.
Role of Profit in Business:
Sustainability and Growth: Profit is essential for the survival and growth of a business.
Resource Allocation: Profits indicate efficient resource utilization.
Incentive: Profit serves as a reward for the risks taken by the business owners
Chapter 2 Forms of Business Organisations
I. Introduction to Business Organizations
A. Meaning, Characteristics, and Types
Meaning: Entities formed to carry out commercial activities.
Characteristics: Engage in economic activities, aim for profits, involve risk.
Types:
Private Sector: Owned and managed by individuals or groups.
Public Sector: Owned and managed by the government.
Public-Private Partnership (PPPs)/Joint Sector: Collaboration between government and private sector.
B. Comparison Between Types
Ownership, control, purpose, risk and reward distribution, accountability, and level of government interference.
II. Sole Trader
A. Meaning and Definition
A business owned and run by a single individual.
B. Objectives
Profit maximization, autonomy, simple management.
C. Merits and Demerits
Merits: Easy formation, full control, privacy.
Demerits: Limited resources, high risk, limited expertise.
III. Partnership
A. Meaning, Features, Types
Meaning: A business owned and operated by two or more individuals.
Features: Shared ownership, joint decision-making, shared profits.
Types of Partners and Partnerships: Active, sleeping, nominal partners; general and limited partnerships.
B. Registration
Importance, process, and consequences of non-registration.
C. Evaluation: Merits and Demerits
Merits: Combined skills and resources, shared risks.
Demerits: Potential conflicts, shared profits, unlimited liability.
D. Comparison with Sole Proprietorship
Shared responsibility vs. individual control, resource pooling vs. limited resources.
IV. Corporate Organisations
A. Joint Stock Company
Meaning: A legal entity separate from its owners.
Merits and Demerits: Limited liability, more resources vs. complex regulations, potential for conflict.
B. Stages of Formation
Idea conception, legal procedures, registration.
C. Promotion
Role of promoters in establishing a company.
D. Incorporation
Steps, legal requirements, significance of incorporation.
E. Memorandum of Association (MOA) and Articles of Association (AOA)
Contents and distinction between MOA and AOA.
F. Commencement of Business
Steps and Certificate of Commencement.
G. Prospectus and Statement in Lieu of Prospectus
Purpose, contents.
H. Types of Companies
Classification based on liability, control, ownership. Public vs. private companies.
I. Global Enterprises
Meaning, characteristics, merits, and demerits.
V. Public Sector Undertakings
A. Meaning and Forms
Meaning: Businesses owned by the government.
Forms: Departmental undertakings, public corporations, government companies.
B. Public-Private Partnerships
Collaboration models, advantages, and challenges.
VI. Co-operative Organizations
A. Meaning and Characteristics
Member-owned and democratically controlled organizations.
B. Types and Comparison with Joint Stock Companies
Types like consumer, producer, and credit cooperatives. Distinction from corporate models.
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5 Social Responsibility of Business and Business Ethics
Concept and Need for Social Responsibility
Definition: Social responsibility of business refers to the obligations a corporation has towards society, beyond its primary goal of making profits. It encompasses responsible management of impacts on various stakeholders.
Need for Social Responsibility:
Ethical Obligation: Businesses, as integral parts of society, have an ethical duty to contribute positively.
Long-term Profitability: Socially responsible businesses tend to secure long-term sustainability and profitability.
Brand Image and Reputation: Commitment to social responsibility enhances a company's image and builds trust.
Regulatory Compliance and Avoidance of Litigation: Meeting societal expectations can prevent legal issues and comply with regulations.
Responsibility towards Various Stakeholders
Owners and Investors:
Ensuring transparent communication and maximizing shareholder value without compromising ethical standards.
Consumers:
Providing safe, reliable products and services, addressing grievances, and respecting consumer rights.
Employees:
Ensuring fair labor practices, providing a safe working environment, and opportunities for growth and development.
Government:
Complying with laws and regulations, paying taxes, and participating in the formulation of responsible public policies.
Community:
Engaging in community development, supporting social causes, and contributing to the welfare of society.
Responsibility towards the Environment
Sustainable Practices:
Adopting eco-friendly operations, minimizing waste, and conserving natural resources.
Reduction of Carbon Footprint:
Implementing energy-efficient practices and supporting renewable energy sources.
Environmental Stewardship:
Proactively protecting and improving the environment beyond compliance requirements.
Business Ethics: Meaning and Importance
Definition:
Business ethics refers to the application of moral principles and standards to business behavior. It's about distinguishing right from wrong and choosing to do what is right.
Importance:
Trust Building: Ethical practices build trust with customers, employees, and other stakeholders.
Sustainable Growth: Ethical decisions contribute to the long-term success and sustainability of the business.
Employee Morale and Productivity: A strong ethical culture enhances employee satisfaction and productivity.
Risk Mitigation: Ethical business practices can mitigate risks including legal penalties and reputation damage.
Business ethics and social responsibility are intertwined, as ethical practices often lead to socially responsible behavior. Both are essential for the long-term success and credibility of a business in today's increasingly conscientious market.
Chapter 6 Emerging Modes of Business
I. E-Business
Scope and Benefits:
Scope: Includes online retail, digital marketing, electronic supply chain management, and customer relationship management.
Benefits: Wider market reach, cost-effectiveness, improved customer service, and enhanced data and analytics capabilities.
Resources Required for Successful E-Business Implementation:
Technology Infrastructure: Reliable internet connection, robust IT systems.
E-Commerce Platforms: Websites, mobile apps.
Human Resources: Skilled personnel in digital marketing, IT support, web development.
Logistics and Supply Chain: Efficient delivery and distribution systems.
Online Transactions:
Involves the electronic exchange of goods and services for payment over the internet.
Payment Mechanisms:
Includes credit/debit cards, online banking, digital wallets, and payment gateways.
Security and Safety of Business Transactions:
Implementing SSL (Secure Socket Layer) certificates, encryption, two-factor authentication, and compliance with data protection regulations.
II. Outsourcing
Concept:
Outsourcing involves contracting out business functions or processes to third-party providers.
Need and Scope:
Need: To reduce costs, access specialized expertise, and improve focus on core business activities.
Scope: Extends to various functions including customer service, IT services, HR management, and more.
BPO and KPO:
BPO (Business Process Outsourcing): Outsourcing routine or non-core business activities.
KPO (Knowledge Process Outsourcing): Outsourcing that involves knowledge-based activities and specialized expertise.
III. Smart Cards
Meaning:
A smart card is a physical card embedded with an integrated circuit chip that can process data. It can store, encrypt, and securely manage data.
Utility:
Financial Transactions: Used in credit and debit cards for secure payments.
Identification: For secure access in corporate or government premises.
Healthcare: Storing patient medical records and history.
Telecommunications: SIM cards in mobile phones are a type of smart card.
Chapter 7 Stock Exchange
(i) Meaning and Importance:
A stock exchange is an organized marketplace where securities like stocks, bonds, and commodities are bought and sold. It plays a crucial role in the economy by facilitating the transfer of funds between investors and companies. This allows companies to raise capital for expansion and operations, and offers investors opportunities to earn returns on investments.
(ii) Functions and Services:
Functions of a stock exchange include providing liquidity and marketability to existing securities, ensuring safety of transactions, determining market prices based on supply and demand, and spreading equity cult. Services include trade execution, providing market information, ensuring compliance with regulatory standards, and protecting investor interests.
(iii) Major Stock Exchanges in India:
BSE (Bombay Stock Exchange): Located in Mumbai, it's one of the oldest stock exchanges in Asia.
NSE (National Stock Exchange): Also based in Mumbai, known for introducing electronic trading in India.
DSE (Delhi Stock Exchange): Previously operational in Delhi, it was deactivated in 2014.
ASE (Ahmedabad Stock Exchange): Located in Ahmedabad, it's one of the oldest in India but has lost prominence over time.
(iv) Types of Operators:
Brokers: Act as intermediaries between buyers and sellers.
Jobbers: Traders who buy and sell securities for their own accounts.
Bulls: Investors who expect prices to rise and buy securities to sell later at higher prices.
Bears: Investors who expect prices to fall and sell securities to buy them back later at lower prices.
(v) Terms used in Stock Exchange:
Ex-dividend: Trading a stock without the right to receive the most recently declared dividend.
Cum dividend: Trading a stock with the right to receive the most recently declared dividend.
Spot delivery: Transaction where securities are delivered immediately, usually within two working days.
Forward delivery: Transaction where the delivery of the securities is set for a date beyond the standard period.
(vi) SEBI – Functions and Objectives:
SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of India) is the regulator for the securities market in India. Its functions include protecting the interests of investors in securities, promoting the development of the securities market, and regulating it. Its objectives are to ensure fair and efficient markets, reduce malpractices, and promote investor education and training.
Chapter 8 & 9 HOME TRADE
(i) Wholesalers
Meaning of Wholesalers: Wholesalers are entities that buy goods in large quantities from producers or manufacturers and sell them in smaller lots to retailers or other businesses. They act as an intermediary between manufacturers and retailers.
Services of Wholesalers:
To Retailers: Provide a diverse range of products, offer bulk purchase discounts, extend credit facilities, and offer marketing support.
To Customers: Indirectly affect customers by ensuring product availability, stabilizing prices, and reducing retail costs.
To Producers: Offer a stable outlet for products, provide market information, and assist in distribution and storage.
(ii) Retail Trade
(a) Meaning and Characteristics:
Meaning: Retail trade involves selling goods and services directly to the end consumer for personal, non-business use.
Characteristics: Direct interaction with customers, small-scale handling of goods, providing varied customer services, and operating in fixed locations or through online platforms.
Distinction between Wholesale and Retail Trade:
Wholesale trade involves bulk transactions, mainly with businesses, whereas retail trade involves selling to end consumers.
Wholesalers don’t usually provide after-sales services, but retailers often do.
(b) Types of Retail Trade:
Itinerant and Small Scale Fixed Shops: Mobile retailers or small shops with a specific location.
Departmental Store: Large retail establishments offering a wide variety of goods organized into different departments.
Chain Store: A network of retail shops owned and operated by a single company.
Mail Order Houses: Retailers that sell goods through mail orders.
Teleshopping: Selling goods and services through television advertisements.
Franchise: A business model where individuals buy the rights to open and run a branch of a larger company.
Consumer Cooperative Stores: Retail establishments owned and operated by consumers, offering goods at lower prices.
Hypermarkets: Large retail spaces combining a supermarket and a department store.
Automatic Vending Machines: Dispensing products to consumers automatically after payment.
(c) Documents Used in Home Trade:
Inquiry: A request for information regarding products or prices.
Quotation: A formal statement of promise by the supplier to sell goods at certain prices.
Catalogues: Detailed listings of products available for sale.
Order: A formal request by a buyer to purchase goods.
Invoice: A document indicating the quantity and price of the goods sold.
Debit Note and Credit Note: Documents issued for adjustments in transactions.
Price Quotations: Including terms like cash discount (reduction for immediate payment) and trade discount (reduction offered on the listed price).
(iii) Role of Chambers of Commerce and Industry and Trade Associations
Meaning and Functions:
Chambers of Commerce and Industry: Organizations that represent the interests of business community members. They advocate on behalf of businesses, provide networking opportunities, and offer business services.
Trade Associations: Typically focused on a specific industry or trade. They provide a platform for collaboration, address common issues, and may influence policy related to their industry.
Chapter 10 Foreign Trade
(i) Meaning and Difference Between Internal Trade and External Trade:
Internal Trade: Refers to the buying and selling of goods and services within a country's borders. It is governed by the country's laws and does not require currency exchange or customs duties.
External Trade: Also known as international or foreign trade, involves the exchange of goods and services across national borders. This trade is influenced by global market conditions, exchange rates, and international regulations.
Characteristics of International Trade:
Involves currency exchange
Subject to international laws and trade agreements
Affected by global economic conditions
Problems of International Trade:
Currency fluctuations
Trade barriers like tariffs and quotas
Differences in legal and regulatory standards
Advantages and Disadvantages of International Trade:
Advantages: Access to a wider market, economies of scale, and increased competition leading to better products.
Disadvantages: Domestic industries may suffer, loss of cultural identity, and dependency on other countries.
(ii) Export Trade:
Meaning: The sale of goods and services to other countries.
Objectives: To expand market reach, earn foreign exchange, and improve economic growth.
Procedure: Involves market research, obtaining necessary licenses, finding buyers, and complying with legal requirements for shipping and customs.
(iii) Import Trade:
Meaning: The purchase of goods and services from other countries.
Objectives and Purpose: To acquire goods not available domestically, obtain cheaper or better-quality products, and foster global trade relationships.
Procedure: Identifying suppliers, negotiating terms, securing import licenses, and managing logistics and customs clearances.
(iv) Documents Involved in International Trade:
Export Documents: Include indent, letter of credit, shipping order, shipping bill, mate’s receipt, bill of lading, certificate of origin, consular invoice, documentary bill of exchange (DA/DP).
Import Documents: Comprise import license, indent, letter of credit, documentary bill of exchange, bill of entry, bill of sight, port trust dues receipt, application to import, advice note, bill of lading.
(v) World Trade Organisation (WTO):
Meaning: An international organization that regulates global trade.
Objectives: To facilitate smooth, predictable, and free trade by reducing tariffs and other barriers to trade, and to resolve trade disputes between member countries.
Chapter 11 INSURANCE
(i) Insurance: Meaning, Objectives, and Purpose
Meaning of Insurance: Insurance is a financial product that offers protection against financial losses from various risks. It involves a contract where an individual or entity receives financial protection or reimbursement against losses from an insurance company.
Objectives and Purpose of Insurance:
To provide financial protection and security against potential future losses.
To manage risk by distributing it among a large number of people.
To offer peace of mind by reducing uncertainty.
To promote economic growth by making it safer for entities to engage in activities that might be too risky without insurance.
Concept of Re-insurance and Double Insurance:
Re-insurance: A process where the insurance company transfers a portion of the risk to another insurer to reduce the risk of large payouts.
Double Insurance: Occurs when an individual or entity takes out more than one insurance policy on the same subject matter, with the same interest and risk.
(ii) Risks in Business: Insurable and Non-insurable
Insurable Risks:
Meaning: Risks that can be protected against through an insurance policy.
Examples: Theft, fire, accidents, natural disasters.
Characteristics: Must be measurable, definite, accidental, and financially significant.
Non-insurable Risks:
Meaning: Risks that cannot be insured due to their nature.
Examples: Business losses due to market competition, changes in consumer preferences, obsolescence of products.
(iii) Principles of Insurance
Utmost Good Faith: Both parties in an insurance contract must disclose all relevant information truthfully.
Insurable Interest: The policyholder must have a legitimate interest in the subject matter of the insurance.
Indemnity: The insurance policy aims to restore the insured to the financial position they were in before the loss.
Contribution: In case of double insurance, insurers share the compensation in proportion to their coverage.
Doctrine of Subrogation: After compensation, the insurer acquires the right to sue third parties responsible for the loss.
Causa Proxima: The nearest cause of loss is considered to determine if it’s covered under the policy.
Mitigation of Loss: The insured must take reasonable steps to minimize the loss.
(iv) Types of Insurance: Life and Non-life
Life Insurance: Provides financial protection to the beneficiaries of the insured in case of the insured's death.
Health Insurance: Covers medical expenses incurred due to illnesses or accidents.
Fire Insurance: Protects against losses or damages caused by fire.
Marine Insurance: Covers loss or damage of ships, cargo, and other transport by which goods are transferred, acquired, or held between points of origin and final destination.
Motor Insurance: Provides coverage for road vehicles against accidents, theft, and other damages.
Social Insurance: Government-provided insurance, like social security, covering unemployment, disability, or similar.
Fidelity Insurance: Protects a business from losses caused by fraudulent acts of employees.